Big Data is defined by its high Volume (data size), Velocity (speed), Variety (types), and Veracity (uncertainty). These characteristics pose challenges for traditional data processing. The 4 Vs guide the design of scalable data systems.

Binary search divides the search space in half with each step, resulting in logarithmic time complexity. It requires the input to be sorted. This makes it faster than linear search for large datasets.

Nonce is a random or pseudo-random number used once in cryptographic communications. In blockchain mining, it's adjusted to find a valid hash. This process ensures block validity in Proof-of-Work systems.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used to send emails from the client to the mail server or between servers. POP3 and IMAP are used for retrieving emails. SMTP typically works on port 25 or 587.

Synchronized learning isn't a category of machine learning. The three major types are supervised (labeled data), unsupervised (unlabeled data), and reinforcement (rewards/punishments). These approaches underpin AI systems today.

DNS translates human-readable domain names like example.com into IP addresses. It acts like a phonebook of the internet. Without DNS, users would need to remember complex IP numbers.

In a star topology, each device connects to a central hub or switch, which controls data transmission. This makes troubleshooting easier but increases dependence on the hub. Failure of the hub can disrupt the entire network.

In C++, class members are private by default unless explicitly specified. This promotes data encapsulation and hides implementation details. Structs, in contrast, have public members by default.

NTFS (New Technology File System) includes journaling, which helps in recovering data after a system crash. It logs changes before actually writing them to disk. FAT-based systems do not support journaling.

In recent years, the services sector, including trade, finance, education, and transport, has become the highest contributor to UP's GSDP. It reflects the state’s gradual shift from agriculture-based economy to a diversified one. This structural change indicates growing urbanization and development.

The human heart has 2 atria and 2 ventricles for efficient oxygenation and circulation.

Explanation: (18 ÷ 3) = 6; (4 × 2) = 8; Total = 6 + 8 = 14