The presentation layer manages data formatting, translation, encryption, and compression. It acts as a translator between the application and the lower layers. This layer ensures readable data formats between systems.

RAID is a method to combine multiple physical disks into one logical unit to increase performance or redundancy. Different RAID levels offer trade-offs between speed and fault tolerance. RAID is common in servers and critical storage systems.

Binary search divides the search space in half with each step, resulting in logarithmic time complexity. It requires the input to be sorted. This makes it faster than linear search for large datasets.

Nonce is a random or pseudo-random number used once in cryptographic communications. In blockchain mining, it's adjusted to find a valid hash. This process ensures block validity in Proof-of-Work systems.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used to send emails from the client to the mail server or between servers. POP3 and IMAP are used for retrieving emails. SMTP typically works on port 25 or 587.

Synchronized learning isn't a category of machine learning. The three major types are supervised (labeled data), unsupervised (unlabeled data), and reinforcement (rewards/punishments). These approaches underpin AI systems today.

DNS translates human-readable domain names like example.com into IP addresses. It acts like a phonebook of the internet. Without DNS, users would need to remember complex IP numbers.

In a star topology, each device connects to a central hub or switch, which controls data transmission. This makes troubleshooting easier but increases dependence on the hub. Failure of the hub can disrupt the entire network.

In C++, class members are private by default unless explicitly specified. This promotes data encapsulation and hides implementation details. Structs, in contrast, have public members by default.

NTFS (New Technology File System) includes journaling, which helps in recovering data after a system crash. It logs changes before actually writing them to disk. FAT-based systems do not support journaling.

The instruction uses the content of register BX to point to a memory location, hence indirect addressing.

BCNF is an advanced version of the third normal form and is designed to eliminate redundancy caused by functional dependencies. A table is in BCNF if it is in 3NF and every determinant is a candidate key. It ensures better data integrity.

Shortest Job First (SJF) in its non-preemptive form executes the shortest job next without interruption. Unlike Round Robin or Priority, it doesn't allow switching between tasks once started. This algorithm reduces average waiting time but may cause starvation.

RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) is a widely used public-key cryptographic algorithm based on the difficulty of factoring large prime numbers. Unlike symmetric algorithms like AES or DES, RSA uses separate keys for encryption and decryption. It ensures secure data transmission in networks.

Class D IP: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

It assigns IP addresses to devices on a network.

Data is lost when power is off.

RSA uses public and private keys.

GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) handles all rendering tasks.

It checks connectivity and measures round-trip time.

Kernel controls memory, CPU, devices—core of the OS.

It limits the lifetime of data on the network. It limits the lifetime of data on the network.

EDF is common in real-time OS.

Two or more processes waiting for each other indefinitely

Usually, normalization is up to 5NF in practical use.

Network and host division

Owner: Read, write, execute; Group & others: Read and execute.

SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.